Duodenal-jejunal bypass normalizes pancreatic islet proliferation rate and function but not hepatic steatosis in hypothalamic obese rats

Modifications in life-style and/or pharmacotherapies contribute to weight loss and ameliorate the metabolic profile of diet-induced obese humans and rodents. Since these strategies fail to treat hypothalamic obesity, we have assessed the possible mechanisms by which duodenal-jejunal bypass (DJB) surgery regulates hepatic lipid metabolism and the morphophysiology of pancreatic islets, in hypothalamic obese (HyO) rats. During the first 5 days of life, male Wistar rats received subcutaneous injections of monosodium glutamate (4 g/kg body weight, HyO group), or saline (CTL). At 90 days of age, HyO rats were randomly subjected to DJB (HyO DJB group) or sham surgery (HyO Sham group). HyO Sham rats were morbidly obese, insulin resistant, hypertriglyceridemic and displayed higher serum concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and hepatic triglyceride (TG). These effects were associated with higher expressions of the lipogenic genes and fatty acid synthase (FASN) protein content in the liver. Furthermore, hepatic genes involved in β-oxidation and TG export were down-regulated in HyO rats. In addition, these rats exhibited hyperinsulinemia, β-cell hypersecretion, a higher percentage of islets and β-cell area/pancreas section, and enhanced nuclear content of Ki67 protein in islet-cells. At 2 months after DJB surgery, serum concentrations of TG and NEFA, but not hepatic TG accumulation and gene and protein expressions, were normalized in HyO rats. Insulin release and Ki67 positive cells were also normalized in HyO DJB islets. In conclusion, DJB decreased islet-cell proliferation, normalized insulinemia, and ameliorated insulin sensitivity and plasma lipid profile, independently of changes in hepatic metabolism.

Disfunção hipotalâmica na obesidade / Hypothalamic dysfunction in obesity

A obesidade, definida como o acúmulo excessivo ou anormal de gordura que pode causar dano à saúde do indivíduo, é considerada atualmente um dos principais problemas de saúde pública. Resulta de um desequilíbrio entre a ingestão alimentar e o gasto corporal de energia. O controle do balanço energético de animais e seres humanos é realizado pelo sistema nervoso central (SNC) por meio de conexões neuroendócrinas, em que hormônios periféricos circulantes, como a leptina e a insulina, sinalizam neurônios especializados do hipotálamo sobre os estoques de gordura do organismo e induzem respostas apropriadas para a manutenção da estabilidade desses estoques. A maioria dos casos de obesidade se associa a um quadro de resistência central à ação da leptina e da insulina. Em animais de experimentação, a dieta hiperlipídica é capaz de induzir um processo inflamatório no hipotálamo, que interfere com as vias intracelulares de sinalização por esses hormônios, resultando em hiperfagia, diminuição do gasto de energia e, por fim, obesidade. Evidências recentes obtidas por intermédio de estudos de neuroimagem e avaliação de marcadores inflamatórios no líquido cefalorraquidiano de indivíduos obesos sugerem que alterações semelhantes podem estar presentes também em seres humanos. Nesta revisão, apresentamos sumariamente os mecanismos envolvidos com a perda do controle homeostático do balanço energético em modelos animais de obesidade e as evidências atuais de disfunção hipotalâmica em humanos obesos.

Obesity, defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair life quality, is one of the major public health problems worldwide. It results from an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure. The control of energy balance in animals and humans is performed by the central nervous system (CNS) by means of neuroendocrine connections, in which circulating peripheral hormones, such as leptin and insulin, provide signals to specialized neurons of the hypothalamus reflecting body fat stores, and induce appropriate responses to maintain the stability of these stores. The majority of obesity cases are associated with central resistance to both leptin and insulin actions. In experimental animals, high-fat diets can induce an inflammatory process in the hypothalamus, which impairs leptin and insulin intracellular signaling pathways, and results in hyperphagia, decreased energy expenditure and, ultimately, obesity. Recent evidence obtained from neuroimaging studies and assessment of inflammatory markers in the cerebrospinal fluid of obese subjects suggests that similar alterations may be also present in humans. In this review, we briefly present the mechanisms involved with the loss of homeostatic control of energy balance in animal models of obesity, and the current evidence of hypothalamic dysfunction in obese humans.

The brain is the conductor: diet-induced inflammation overlapping physiological control of body mass and metabolism: [review] / O cérebro é o maestro: inflamação induzida por dieta interfere no controle fisiológico da adiposidade corporal e do metabolismo: [revisão]

Obesity is currently a worldwide pandemic. It affects more than 300 million humans and it will probably increase over the next 20 years. The consumption of calorie-rich foods is responsible for most of the obesity cases, but not all humans exposed to high-calorie diets develop the disease. This fact has prompted researchers to investigate the mechanisms linking the consumption of high-calorie diets to the generation of an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. According to recent studies, the exposure to fat-rich diets induces an inflammatory response in the hypothalamic areas involved in the control of feeding and thermogenesis. The inflammatory process damages the neuronal circuitries that maintain the homeostatic control of the body's energy stores, therefore favoring body mass gain. This review will focus on the main advances obtained in this field.

Obesidade é hoje um grave problema de saúde pública no mundo. Mais de 300 milhões de pessoas são obesas e esse número deve crescer substancialmente nos próximos 20 anos. As dietas ricas em calorias são a principal causa de obesidade, porém, nem todos os indivíduos expostos a dietas altamente calóricas se tornam obesos. Tal fato estimulou pesquisadores a investigarem os mecanismos que ligam o consumo de dietas ricas em calorias ao desenvolvimento de um balanço inadequado entre consumo e gasto energético. De acordo com estudos recentes, o consumo de dietas ricas em gorduras induz a ativação de uma resposta inflamatória nas áreas do hipotálamo envolvidas com o controle da fome e da termogênese. Tal processo inflamatório lesa os circuitos neuronais que mantêm o controle homeostático das reservas corporais de energia, favorecendo assim o ganho de massa adiposa. Esta revisão irá focar os principais avanços obtidos nesta área.

Etiopatogenia de la amenorrea hipotalámica funcional: Interacción de las respuestas hormonales del sistema nervioso central y neuropéptidos periféricos / Ethiopatogeniae of functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: Interactions of central nervous system and peripherical neuropeptides responses

La amenorrea hipotalámica funcional (AHF) es una patología compleja provocada generalmente por el estrés psicológico, o por alteraciones psicógenas como la depresión en otras entidades como la amenorrea nerviosa y bulimia o en la excesiva actividad física (atletas competitivas, bailarinas clásicas) entre las causas más frecuentes. Habitualmente, estos factores se presentan asociados a dietas cuali y cuantitativamente inadecuadas, originando alteraciones en el balance energético (consumo /gasto calórico) y modificaciones en la composición corporal. En general, estas alteraciones se presentan combinadas e inducen reacciones hormonales tendientes a defender la homeostasis metabólica general. Los protagonistas de estos procesos adaptativos son un "circuito" constituido en el sistema nervioso central que se interrelaciona con otro "circuito periférico hormonal". Las manifestaciones del primero incluyen principalmente una atenuación funcional de los ejes hipotalamo-hipófiso-somatotrófico, prolactínico y tiroideo, amplificación de la secreción nocturna de la melatonina e hiperactividad adrenal. A su vez, las interrelaciones, a nivel hipotalámico, del eje CRH-ACTH-sistemas-opiodeo-dopaminérgico y la consiguiente inhibición de la secreción de Gn RH, constituye un mecanismo fisiopatológico crucial para el desarrollo de la disfunción gonadal. Por otro lado, el grado de alteración de la actividad pusátil del Gn RH está condicionado por la etiopatogenia, intensidad nosológica y el tiempo de evolución. La variabilidad y el tipo de irregularidades del ciclo menstrual, que frecuentemente son observados en las atletas competitivas, constituyen un reflejo representativo de ello. Por otro lado, el hipoestrogenismo e hipoandrogenismo de estas mujeres repercuten negativamente en el metabolismo general y osteocálcico, en particular. La osteopenia con su riesgo de fracturas, está omnipresente en este síndrome. No menos importante, el hipoestrogenismo es también uno de los factores de riesgo cardiovascular. No obstante, la administración de anticonceptivos que combinan estrógenos más progesterona, pueden aumentar significativamente los niveles de la proteína C reactiva, un reconocido y seguro marcador de riesgo cardiovascular. Ello induce a tomar precauciones en su utilización en estas amenorricas desnutridas. Asimismo, la administración de anticonceptivos no ha demostrado brindar un beneficio sustancial en el tratamiento de la osteosporosis de estas pacientes. El "circuito periférico", funcionalmente interrelacionado con el central, está principalmente compuesto por la leptina, adiponectina, ghrelin, insulina e IGF-1, péptidos provenientes del compartimiento graso ("adipocitokinas") tracto gastrointestinal superior, páncreas e hígado, respectivamente. Estos péptidos no sólo están involucrados en los mecanismos centrales del apetito y saciedad, sino que también participan en las respuestas de adaptación homeostática, tendientes a revertir los desvíos del metabolismo intermedio y fosfocálcico, que en grado variable afectan a estas pacientes. Conclusiones: la AHF relacionada en general con el estrés psicofísico prolongado y la mala nutrición, es un síndrome complejo, cuyas respuestas hormonales centrales y periféricas de adaptación, resultan primordiales en estas mujeres que padecen un cierto grado de compromiso nutritivometabólico general. Enfocando globalmente este abigarrado síndrome, estimamos que la AHF es, obviamente, un epifenómeno menos vital.

Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhea (FHA) is a complex pathology produced by psicological stress, as observed in amenorrhea nervosa and bulimia or in intensive physical activity (athletas, competitions, classic dancing). Frequently, these factors are associated to quali-quantitative inadequated diets and therefore they induce alterations in the energetic balance (caloric intake, caloric expend and modification in body composition). These factors are usually combinated and they induce hormonal reactions trend to sustain the general metabolic homeostasis. The protagonists of this adaptative process are a "central nervous system circuit" interrelated with "periferical hormonal circuit". The responses to the first, mainly includes functional atenuation of Hypothalamic- Hipophyseal Somatotropic, Prolactin and Thyroid axes, amplification of nocturnal melatonine secretion and hyper adrenal activity. The relationships, to hypothalamic level, of CRH-ACTH, opioid, and dopaminergic systems, and the subsequent inhibition of Gn-RH secretion, constitute a physiopathological mechanism for the development of gonadal disfunction. On the other hand, the degree of alteration in the Gn-RH pulsatility is conditioned by the ethipahogenic, nosologic intensity and time of evolution. Variability and type of irregularity of menstrual cycle observed in competitive athletes, is a demonstrative example. On the other hand, hypoestrogenism and hypoandrogenism in these women affect negatively the general metabolism and, particularly, the osteocalcic system. Osteopenia with its fracture risk is omnipresence in this syndrome. As important as that hypoestrogenism is also one of cardiovascular factor risk. However the administration of contraceptives which combines estrogens plus progesterone, may significantly increase the C-reactive protein level, a known and safety marker of cardiovascular risk. Therefore it induces to take precautions in its administration in these unnourished amenorrheic women. Also, the administration of contraceptives has not showed a substantial benefit in osteoporosis treatment of this patients. A "periferic circuit", functionally interrelated with the "central circuit", is mainly composed by leptin, adiponectine, ghrelin, insulin and IGF1 peptides, coming from fat compartiment (adipokines), gastro-intestinal tract, pancreas and liver, respectively. These peptides, are not only involved in the central mechanisms of appetite and saciety, but they also participate in homeostatic adaptative responses, with the aim of to balance the alteration of middle and phosphocalcic metabolism which affect these patients in a variable form. CONCLUSIONS: FHA, generally related with psychic/physic stress and malnutrition, is a complex syndrome in which the central and peripheral adaptative hormonal responses are mainly important in these women which are affected of a kind of nutritive and general metabolic compromise. Analazing this complex process we considerate that the hypothalamic amenorrhea is obviously a less vital phenomenon.

Septo-optic dysplasia associated with abnormal pubertal development.

Septo-optic dysplasia (SOD) is a congenital anomaly, that is characterized by a triad of optic nerve hypoplasia, structural brain defects, and hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction. This condition is very rare and it has never been reported in a Thai population. In the present report, the authors described two SOD cases that presented with primary amenorrhea and abnormal pubertal development. Clinical features. Possible etiology of this condition was reviewed

Hypernatremic metabolic myopathy due to hypothalamic dysfunction

We report a patient with muscle weakness secondary to elevated serum sodium level. The cause of the elevated sodium level and the mechanism involved in producing muscle weakness are discussed

Fisiología del comportamiento alimentario / Physiology of feeding behavior

Este artículo revisa algunos de los factores que influyen en el comportamiento alimentario. Se discuten además los efectos de las lesiones hipotalámicas en este comportamiento y la participación de péptidos y neurotransmisores a nivel central y periférico. Finalmente, se hace referencia a la noción de un péptido integrador cuya acción coordinaría respuestas del sistema nervioso central y periférico